A woman wearing a hat and sunglasses stands on a ladder and reaches into a tree to pick a cherry.

Picking cherries. Yakima, Washington. United States Yakima Washington Yakima. Yakima County, 1936. July. Photograph. https://www.loc.gov/item/2017760771/.

Across the country, U-pick farms allow customers to come out to the field or orchard, pick their own produce, and enjoy a fun day with family or friends. For many families, this is a cherished annual tradition. Where did U-pick farms come from? And if you’re not the one doing the picking…who is?

 

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Transcript

Audio Clip: There’s a new spot in Fort Wayne to pick your summer blackberries and enjoy the simpler things in life.

Audio Clip: That’s what everybody wants. Big berries.

Audio Clip: Raspberry. And this  is a U-pick raspberry farm

Audio Clip: With strawberry season in the rearview mirror blueberry season is in full swing.

Audio Clip: Today, I’m at the U-pick blueberry place. It is so much fun.

Kate Carpenter: Ah, you-pick fruit picking; one of my favorite seasonal outings. If you live anywhere near farms, you might have heard news stories like these. Maybe you’ve gone berry picking in the spring or apple picking in the fall. If you haven’t, let me explain. You-pick, also known as pick-your-own, farms allow customers to come out to the fields and orchards themselves and then purchase what they picked. U-pick farms operate across the country. Customers can harvest everything from strawberries in the spring to cherries in the summer, to apples in the fall. Even pumpkin patches and cut your own Christmas tree farms are a form of you-pick. I’m Kate Carpenter. I’m an environmental historian and a graduate student in the history of science at Princeton University. My own family is made up of enthusiastic you-pickers. From the time that I was young in California, my whole family–aunts and uncles, cousins and grandma–would head to nearby orchards to pick flats and bushels of fruit. My grandmother is an avid canner, making delicious jellies and pie fillings from our harvest. When my family moved to Washington state, we continued the tradition, spending happy weekend days picking far more fruit than we meant to, which we then came home to can and freeze in a delicious, sticky mess. It’s a hobby I’ve even kept up as an adult, seeking out you-pick farms as I’ve moved from Idaho to Nebraska to Missouri. I have favorite places to harvest strawberries, blueberries, blackberries, cherries, and apples. And every year I put away batches of jam and frozen fruit.

Carpenter: In recent years, though, I’ve noticed kind of a surprising trend. It used to be a pretty safe bet that you-pick fruit was an excellent deal, much less expensive than they would be at the grocery store. After all, you’re doing the work of picking them. The other customers were a lot like my family, arms heavy with massive amounts of fruit. Recently, though, I’ve noticed changes. Often the fruit doesn’t seem like such a great deal. Really, sometimes a good sale at the grocery store would cost me less than you-pick produce. And far more of the harvesters seem less interested in picking fruit beyond maybe a small bag, and much more focused on taking family pictures, enjoying the entertainment at the farm site like tractors and hay bale mazes, and enjoying maybe a fresh slice of pie or an apple cider donut. Don’t get me wrong, I love a good apple cider donut. But these changes made me curious about the history of you-pick farms. How had they started? Have things changed, or was I imagining it?

Carpenter: It turns out that you-pick farms have a much longer history than I realized. It’s really impossible to pin down exactly when you-pick began, because it has evolved across various similar activities for the past two centuries. The first events that resemble the you-pick farming that we see today emerged in parallel with urbanization. As more people moved to cities, fewer people grew their own crops, farmers needed more help at harvest time. The work, as you might expect, could be kind of boring, but a lot of fruit picking is less strenuous than other kinds of farm labor. In the 1800s harvest parties began to emerge in Europe, where farmers encouraged groups of city dwellers to come for a sort of working vacation in the fields. For example, in England, farmers who grew hops, which is an essential ingredient in beer, turned harvest time into a social event that drew city dwellers out to the country to join in a festive atmosphere and help to pick the hops. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, hop growers in Oregon followed their lead, creating hop harvest celebrations. City dwellers in the American Northwest headed to the Oregon countryside on special train routes to enjoy a kind of romanticized version of agriculture, take in the fresh air and meet new people. It wasn’t all for fun. The outings appealed mostly to lower and middle class city dwellers, who saw it as a relaxing way to work at their own pace and make a little extra cash. Growers tried to create an atmosphere that would appeal to the whole family, adding recreational facilities and live music. For young men and women from the city, hop picking time was a great way to pair a little bit of socializing with a seasonal income.[1] Newspaper articles show evidence of similar outings across the country in the 19th and early 20th century.[2] Just like urbanization helped to create those 1800 harvest parties, the arrival of the automobile in the 1910s in the United States seems to have driven an increased interest in individual you-pick opportunities.

Carpenter: The United States’s participation in World War One also increased the popularity of women heading out to farms to pick their own fruit. With the shortage of labor as men served in the war, and women being urged to can their fruit to support the war effort, housewives were looking for ways to save money on fruit, and farmers were desperate for anyone to harvest their crop. An article in a 1918 newspaper urged women to try it out for themselves. Here’s what the author wrote: “Really, fruit picking in some suburban localities has become quite a fad, and young matrons who, a few seasons ago, would have been seen on fine summer mornings on golf courses or tennis courts are now going forth on fruit-picking bent.”[3] Classified advertisements for you-pick prices at farms continued to appear in newspapers for the next four decades, increasing every year. People across the country could save some money picking strawberries, cherries, loganberries, blackberries, apricots, peaches, cucumbers, plums, and canning tomatoes. These were all highly casual arrangements. The ads told people to bring their own containers and just call ahead.[4] And city dwellers were already romanticizing the harvest experience. Take, for example, this truly terrible poem printed in a Virginia newspaper in 1929. It’s called “Apple Picking Time,” and it has stanzas like this one: “Come on, let’s go apple picking, You don’t watch out you’ll get a lickin. Oh! What fun it is in town, when apple picking time comes ‘round. O! Come on, let’s get in the trees, And throw down apples with the leaves. Oh! What fun it is in town, When apple picking time comes ‘round.” [5] I’ll spare you the rest of the stanzas. But I will make a side note that you should not throw apples down from the trees. No one likes a bruised apple.

Norman Greig: My family has been in the pick your own business since 1949. It started as a gleaning process after we’d harvested for wholesale on a small acreage of strawberries.[6]

Carpenter: This is a clip from a video interview with Norman Greig from Greig Farm in Red Hook New York, produced by the University of Vermont Extension, talking about his own farm’s experience with you-pick customers.

Greig: In the 60s, we had a write up in the New York Times. And we were picked out every day. And so we decided that should never happen again. We added another 15 acres of strawberries that next year. And now we need a write up in the New York Times every year to pick the crop. But it’s interesting how the market’s changed over the years. In the ’50s everyone came in a station wagon with four or five children and mother and father and they would wait all year for the three weeks that strawberries were ready and pick 100 pounds of strawberries per car and take them home and spend the day freezing and jamming. And that doesn’t happen anymore. In the market today the public comes single head of household maybe with one child or a young couple out for a day in the country and they’ll take eight or 10 pounds of berries and not know what they’re gonna do with them all.

Carpenter: As you heard here, you-pick farms came into their own in the second half of the 20th century. There is no clear single reason for their increased popularity. But it seems to have stemmed from a combination of things: baby boomer families looking for fun weekend activities, rising oil prices and labor costs that meant farmers were more interested in direct sales to consumers, and the financial depressions of the 1970s and 1980s meant shoppers were looking for produce deals, too. The rise in interest in you-pick farms also grew alongside the environmental movement in the 1970s, and many consumers who came to pick their own were drawn by the fresh, healthy air and the sense that fruit that came straight from the tree was healthier as well as cheaper.[7]

Carpenter: Newspaper articles reflected these trends, profiling farmers who were turning more and more of their fields over to you-pick consumers and encouraging visitors. These articles all emphasized the cost benefits for both farmers and customers. State agricultural departments and extensions eagerly supported the trend. They published guides to help shoppers find you-pick farms and taught farmers about best practices, how to market their farms, and how to provide good customer service.[8] With the growth of organic and local food movements in the 1990s and early 2000s, pick-your-own farms continued to grow, part of a larger trend of agritourism, which is a name that describes a range activities that connect agricultural businesses with visitors as an additional way for small farms to make money. The same phrases appear over and over again in ads, news segments and blog posts — visitors to farms like the chance to “see where their food comes from.”

Carpenter: But over the decades that you-pick has been on the rise, something else has been happening in those fields as well, with an entirely different group of pickers, and a different meaning of where food comes from.

Carpenter: Farmers in the United States have long relied on additional labor to harvest crops, whether enslaved labor prior to the Civil War, families from neighboring farms who shared the extra work at harvest time, or hired help. The need for farm labor has been acutely felt in the American West since the end of the 19th century, when a smaller population spread across a greater geographic space meant there were never enough neighbors around to help. Historian Mark Wyman wrote about one form of this work in his book Hoboes, Bindlestiffs, Fruit Tramps, and the Harvesting of the West. He describes how groups of nomadic laborers traveled in the American West fulfilling harvest labor needs in the late 19th and early 20th century, setting up rough camps and performing hard physical labor for low pay. Often, they faced unhealthy and dangerous working conditions. Farmers relied on this labor, especially as farms became increasingly large. Newspaper advertisements recruited workers, who came by railroad looking for work, but were quickly rushed out of town once the harvest season was over. Although these migrant workers were initially mostly white Americans and European immigrants, over time they included indigenous laborers, free African Americans, and successive Chinese, Japanese, Mexican, and Filipino laborers. Many were single men, but entire families also worked as seasonal laborers, taking on painful, poorly paid vulnerable work when they had few other options.[9]

Carpenter: The changing makeup of these migrant laborers was related to political and social contexts, as well. Chinese immigrant farm workers faced racial violence and threats from white residents, ultimately resulting in restrictions and exclusions of Chinese immigration that reduced their availability as farm workers.[10] In their place came Japanese immigrants. Japanese men and families provided essential work for farms in places like California’s central valley, as historian Cecilia Tsu shows in her book Garden of the World, Asian Immigrants and the Making of Agriculture in California’s Santa Clara Valley. Not only did they perform painful labor, working hunched over for long days and very little pay, but they also taught farmers how to grow new crops and improved harvest yield. Although some Japanese laborers earned enough to begin to rent and purchase their own farm land, their accomplishments were destroyed first by racial discrimination and then by World War II, when Japanese immigrants in the American West were forced into incarceration in internment camps and, in most cases, lost any property they had gained.[11]

Carpenter: By the mid-twentieth century, then, the majority of migrant farm laborers in the United States were Mexican Americans, Mexicans, and Filipinos. Some arrived as part of the Bracero Program, which began during World War II as a way to bring temporary labor to the United States from Mexico during the wartime labor shortage. Although it was initially intended as a temporary measure, the Bracero program continued until 1964. In theory, farmers employing bracero workers promised to provide adequate housing, food, and wage that matched the “prevailing rate” in the region. In reality, though, farmers mostly ignored that agreement. Others were Mexican Americans citizens of the United States, who contended with racialized violence and discrimination. Others were undocumented workers, the most vulnerable members of this labor group due to their status outside of the legal labor system. Though all three groups faced exploitation in agriculture, they also remained separated. Mexican American workers were threatened by the importation of bracero workers as well as by the arrival of undocumented migrants, who might be willing to work for lower pay. They feared that these groups harmed their own ability to be seen as legal citizens with full civil rights. Regardless of these internal divisions, farm laborers faced terrible conditions. Whites used racist assumptions to argue that they were physically suited for long, grueling hours in a stooped position. As historian Lori Flores describes in her book, Grounds for Dreaming: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the California Farmworker Movement, working in this hunched position for ten to fourteen hours could leave workers permanently disabled. They often lived in poorly built and unhealthy housing, worked long hours in the heat and dust, under ever increasing pressure to harvest faster. They were forced into the hardest jobs in the field, while white workers were allowed to work in the packing sheds, where the work was much less grueling. They faced racist stereotypes, discrimination, and violence in the communities around the farms, as well.[12]  Here’s activist Dolores Huerta, who would become a major leader of the farmworker movement, talking about the conditions that these farmworkers faced and the racist assumptions of the growers who employed them:

Dolores Huerta: It was just a very miserable time, there was no such thing as unemployment insurance, people could not even get surplus commodities, so people were just very hungry. And then they didn’t have enough money to buy furniture. People had orange crates and apple crates for their furniture. Children were barefoot, it was just a very terrible time, they had to move to follow the crops after one season ended, they just had to follow the crops to the next season so that they could continue to eat. And that meant that the children didn’t go to school. There were no such things that as toilets in the field, cold drinking water, and entire crews had to drink out of one beer can or soda can, that would get the top, you know, taken off and, and like 40 people had to drink out of one can. There were no such things as rest periods. People worked from sunup to sundown, it was just… I remember going into homes where people didn’t have linoleum or wood on their floors, just dirt floors. It was just a terrible situation for workers. And the other thing that we need to throw into this mix is that the employers were really very racist. You know, this is back in the 50s, mid 50s and the early 60s. And they really did– I remember a grower saying that they like to hire Mexicans and Filipinos because they were close to the ground. And they were better pickers because they were close to the ground. And the same thing they would say about hiring children, that the children, for picking prunes, it was good to have the children out there because they you know, they could pick up the prunes a lot better because, again, they were closer to the ground. So it’s totally a sort of a racist mentality. You know, seeing the workers as, as tools not as human beings, not as people, when you can think of why would they not provide toilets? Why would they not provide drinking water, these are workers, these are people, and yet not even giving them those basic rights. I served on a commission in the early 70s, where there was a woman who was a peach grower. And we brought up the whole issue about having the toilets in the field. And her answer was, well, you know, they really don’t know how to use the toilets, the workers, they don’t know how to use them. And although this sounds so outrageous, hearing that back in the 70s and yet later on in negotiations, I would actually have employers tell me the same thing. Why should we bring out the portable toilets, the workers don’t know how to use them.[13]

Carpenter: Beginning in the 1950s, community organizers, especially Mexican American women, like Huerta, worked to bring together labor communities and create alliances. They worked to defend the rights of Mexican Americans and migrant residents.[14]

Huerta: In the Community Service Organization, we were able to change some laws, like getting disability insurance for farmworkers, something that they never had, like getting the right to a vote in the Spanish language and Spanish ballots. Being able to do voter registration door to door, you know, getting public assistance for people who are legal residents. So these are laws that we passed under CSO which we did all through having all of our different chapters put pressure on their legislators. So this this is just as you know, again, going back to the basic organizing methods of getting the people to put the pressure on their elected officials.

Carpenter: Some laborers tried to organize farm work unions in the 1950s, but the bracero program was used to quickly break strikes. In 1963, though, a massive vehicle accident killed 31 braceros who were riding back to their camp in a flatbed truck, chained into the converted vehicle. The tragedy, which was far from the first, helped to bring about the formal end of the Bracero Program in 1964. But even still, imported Mexican and Filipino laborers continued to meet growers’ labor demands. Here’s how Lori Flores describes farm labor at the beginning of the 1960s: “they suffered from a lack of a living wage and ineligibility for health insurance, welfare, voting rights, and other resources that required an extended period of residency in one place. Even if they did find employment, they endured long days of backbreaking fieldwork with unrealistic piece rates, inadequate rest periods, and exposure to pesticides. Their average life expectancy was only 49 years.”[15] The combination of a growing national awareness of farm worker exploitation and the continued organization of Mexican American leaders, helped to mobilize Mexican American activists, and farmworkers joined the larger Chicano Civil Rights movement. In the mid-1960s, activists Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta, working for the National Farm Workers Association, starting to organize farmworkers. They joined with Filipino activist Larry Itliong, the leader of the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee. Together, they joined and created the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee, or the UFWOC. Through the extraordinary activism of union leaders, farmworkers came together to advocate for civil rights. They began to conduct strikes and consumer boycotts, including a massive grape workers’ strike in Delano, California in 1965, a lettuce workers strike in 1970, and lawsuits against employers to allow workers to unionize. The farmerworkers movement of the 1960s and 1970s represented a massive effort to improve the lives of Mexican American, Mexican, and Filipino farmworkers. About 10,000 Activists marched to the California capital in Sacramento in 1966. A similar march took place in Texas. And the UFWOC led a five-year national consumer grape boycott, raising consumer awareness of the conditions of the people harvesting their groceries and pressuring growers into conceding to some of the union demands. These efforts achieved significant advances. They won legislative victories that protected farmworker unions, stopped illegal importation of bracero workers, improved education for the children of farmworkers, and even outlawed a farm tool, the short-handled hoe, that was considered one of the worst sources of physical injury for laborers. The grape boycott, which lasted five years, resulted in a union contract that increased wages and limited exposure to pesticide use.[16] These movements garnered some success for migrant laborers, but they have not eliminated the brutal, unhealthy, and vulnerable conditions that migrant laborers continue to face in the United States. As those hard-won union contracts expired, growers fought against renewal, requiring workers to continue needing to organize and strike to maintain the gains they had achieved. In the 1980s, largely due to internal politics and some of Chavez’s missteps, the farmworkers unions began to decline. As a result, farmworkers’ labor rights have suffered and workers continue to work in often unstable, unhealthy, and precarious conditions. Workers face the same hazards that originally spurred organization, including pesticide exposure, abysmal wages, and the threat of deportation. The increased militarization of the border between the U.S. and Mexico has only exacerbated these conditions.[17] The government has also reinstated the use of guest workers through the H-2A program, the modern relative of the bracero program.[18]

Carpenter: I had been oblivious to most of these labor issues for much of my you-picking life. Even after learning about the problems facing migrant laborers, I sort of assumed that this was just an issue in massive-scale, factory farms. I believed that the more I bought produce from local farmers, or went to U-pick farms to harvest my own fruit, I would be resisting this harmful system. But in the course of researching this podcast episode, I was startled to come across something that made me realize I had been wrong.  was searching for information about the history of the place where I grew up picking a variety of U-pick fruits, the Green Bluff Growers Association outside of Spokane, WA. Green Bluff is an agritourism delight – a collection of growers who host festivals for every fruit seasons. I have spent many happy hours there picking apples, cherries, peaches, and strawberries, and hunting for Halloween pumpkins. While I was searching I came across an article from the Washington Post during cherry season in summer 1998. For reference, that was the summer before sixth grade for me. Prime family you-pick time. The article featured one of the farms where my family regularly stopped to pick, and it described the charming features that I was familiar with: homemade pies, the annual Cherry Pickers’ Trot Fun Run, hay bale mazes. But woven through the article was part of the story I had never known. Behind the scenes, hard at work in the orchards while everyone else was prepping to open for the festival, was Manuel, a resident worker from Mexico. Manuel, his fingers wrapped to keep them from cuts, nods as the farmer complains that he is picking too many bad cherries. Manuel says the trees are bad this year, but that he wants to work and doesn’t want any trouble. Over the next few hours, the reporters tells us, Manuel picks 300 more pounds of cherries, at 20 cents a pound.[19] What struck me most was that that I had never noticed Manuel, or other farm laborers like him, while I was soaking up the harvest festival atmosphere and having fun with my family wandering among the trees and picking only the best cherries we could find. In her book Labor and the Locavore: The Making of a Comprehensive Food Ethic, political scientist Margaret Gray argues that my assumption is shared by a lot of people who value local food. In emphasizing the health and environmental benefits of buying produce from local, organic farms, we have overlooked the persistent questions of labor. Small farmers might treat their farmworkers better than those on large, industrial farms, but workers are still forced into labor situations that make them vulnerable to the priorities and manipulations of employers and with limited protection for their wages, health, and other labor conditions.[20] In other words, we might have been so blinded by the romanticized ideal of a sun dappled orchard, a sunny Saturday of fruit picking, and a ride on a hay bale that we’ve been blinded to the labor going on behind the scenes, even at local, family farms. In the midst of the Covid-19 pandemic, United Farmer Workers has posted videos on the union’s Twitter account to remind consumers about the farm workers who continue to harvest food, even as they have been among the most vulnerable to the coronavirus and, in most cases, lack health benefits and are likely to lose their jobs if they can’t work while sick. The videos are astounding. Many laborers are paid by their productivity, and the speed of their skilled labor is difficult to comprehend. In one video posted in February, a worker named Charlie harvests turnips, flying through rows and slicing the greens off the turnips using sharp scissors, never pausing as he tosses one into a bucket and grabs another, working to fill buckets. He gets paid 75 cents per bucket.[21]

Carpenter: I want to be clear that I don’t think there’s some vast conspiracy to use Instagram filtered images to distract us from the terrible conditions that face many agricultural laborers. Nor do I think there’s anything wrong with you-pick farms. Many small farm advocates suggest that you-pick and other agritourism activities provide helpful sources of income for small local farmers who themselves are struggling to stay afloat in the face of increasingly corporatized and massive farms.[22] But, it’s important to remember that U-Pick farms only give us a glimpse at a tiny, somewhat idealized image of farming, one that fits our preconceived notions of an American agrarian ideal that dates back to Thomas Jefferson. You-pick has its roots in the historical need for labor in agricultural environments. And yet today, it’s pretty far removed from labor itself. Those who think it’s important to know where their food comes from, to want fresh, pesticide free food, and who talk about how great it is for their families to enjoy the fresh air in a day at the farm should also be the voices advocating for the health and non-exploitative working conditions of farm laborers. If we really value knowing where our food comes from, then we need to care about who’s doing most of the harvesting.

Footnotes

1. Peter A. Kopp, Hoptopia, Ch. 4 “Hop-Picking Time.” University of California Press, 2016.

2. “Young Woman Arranges for Apple-Picking Bee, Then Uses Revolver,” Pittsburgh Daily Post, October 24, 1911, p. 1; “Story of an Apple Orchard in Vermont,” The Vermont Tribune (Ludlow, Vermont), November 3, 1922, p. 3.

3. “Pick Your Own,” Dayton Daily News (Dayton, Ohio), July 25, 1918, p. 8.

4. As random examples, see “Farm Produce,” The Eugene Guard (Eugene, Ore.), September 9, 1949, p. 17; “Fruit and Vegetables,” The San Bernardino County Sun (California), June 12, 1931, p. 18; “Fruit and Produce,” The Pomona Progress Bulletin (California), June 17, 1936. P. 13; “Strawberries, pick your own,” Leader-Telegram (Eau Claire, Wisconsin), June 29, 1940, p. 11.

5. “The Week’s Best Poem,” The Times Dispatch (Richmond, Virginia), October 20, 1929, p. 58.

6. “Horticultural Marketing – Grieg Farm, Red Hook, NY,” University of Vermont Extension, https://archive.org/details/edu.uvm.market.6, accessed May 18, 2021.

7. “ ‘Pick-Your-Own’ Produce Program May Steer Consumer to the Farm,” The Hillsdale Daily News (Hillsdale, Mich.), Sept. 3, 1974. P. 20; “CHERRIES Starting July 11 Pick Your Own or Ready Picked For You,” The Gazette and Daily (York, Pa.), July 9, 1966, p. 25; “You Can Pick Your Own Berries,” Santa Cruz Sentinel (Santa Cruz, Calif.), June 28, 1973, p. 16; “A Farmer’s Guide to Pick-Your-Own-Operation,” University of Tennessee Center for Profitable Agriculture, 2014, p. 2.

8. “‘U-Pick’ Strawberry farms listed for our area,” Southtown Star (Tinley Park, Illinois), May 23, 1985, p. 26; “‘Pick-your-own’ produce operations profitable for farmers, consumers,” The Index-Journal (Greenwood, South Carolina), August 27, 1985, p. 3; “Some city folks just don’t know how to pick-you-own,” The Gaffney Ledger (Gaffney, South Carolina), May 2, 1984, p. 24; “Pick-your-own farms one way to cut cost,” The Daily Reporter (Dover, Ohio), July 11, 1977, p. 31; “Pick-your-own vegetables popular and cheap,” The Gettysburg Times (Gettysburg, Pa.), September 5, 1984, p. 22; George C. Klingbeil, “Pick-Your-Own Strawberries the ten P’s to profit,” University of Wisconsin Extension Cooperative Extension Programs, ca. 1973; Peter L. Henderson and Harold R. Linstrom, “Farmer-to-Consumer Direct Marketing, Selected States, 1979-80” United States Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service, Statistical Bulletin Number 681, Feb. 1982.

9. Mark Wyman, Hoboes: Bindlestiffs, Fruit Tramps, and the Harvesting of the West. New York: Hill and Wang, 2010.

10. Beth Lew-Williams, The Chinese Must Go. (Cambridge: HUP, 2018).

11. Cecilia Tsu, Garden of the World: Asian Immigrants and the Making of Agriculture in California’s Santa Clara Valley. Oxford University Press, 2013. See also Connie Chiang, Nature Behind Barbed Wire: An Environmental History of the Japanese American Incarceration. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018.

12. Lori Flores, Grounds for Dreaming: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the California Farmworker Movement. Yale, 2016.

13. Interview with Dolores Huerta: “Dolores Huerta Oral History,” n.d., Farmworker Movement Documentation Projection, UC San Diego Library. https://libraries.ucsd.edu/farmworkermovement/medias/oral-history/, accessed May 18, 2021.

14. Flores, Grounds for Dreaming.

15. Flores, Grounds for Dreaming.

16. Flores, Grounds for Dreaming.

17. Flores, Grounds for Dreaming; Margaret Gray, Labor and the Locavore: The Making of a Comprehensive Food Ethic, University of California Press, 2014.

18. “Guestworker Programs,” Farmworker Justice, https://www.farmworkerjustice.org/advocacy_program/guestworker-programs/, accessed May 18, 2021.

19. Peter Perl, “Green Bluff, Washington,” The Washington Post, August 23, 1998. https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/magazine/1998/08/23/green-bluff-washington/ac9a7fa4-edcb-4df0-ac76-5881092bc4ec/, accessed May 18, 2021.

20. Gray, Labor and the Locavore.

21. United Farm Workers (@UFWupdates), Twitter, February 5, 2021,  https://twitter.com/UFWupdates/status/1357872186103455748, accessed May 18, 2021.

22. See, for example, the work of the UC Davis Small Farms Agritourism program, http://sfp.ucdavis.edu/agritourism/.